Teaching and Learning
PEDAGOGICAL CONCERNS:
TEACHING AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH LEARNING AND LEARNER
LEARNER’S IN CONTEXTS: SITUATION LEARNER IN THE SOCIO-POLITICAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT:
Teaching and learning are vital processes in survival as they comprise the very foundations of growth.
Both of these methods are necessary in achieving development by seeking to actualize significant changes in behaviors.
Equally, they have various styles and theories that guide the education system. They are also essentially interconnected in a way that we have to learn something before we can actually teach it and that the act of teaching can make us learn something.
Thus, teaching and learning are highly crucial and related progressions.
WHAT IS TEACHING?
Teaching came from the Old English word “tǣcan” which means “to show” or “point out”.
when we hear the word “teach”, we often think of classrooms, lessons, and of course, teachers who point out various information.
Hence, it is the act of communicating ideas, emotions, and/or skills to learners or students. Teachers focus on students or pupils’ experiences and facilitate situations to ensure learning
Concept of teaching
Teaching is a process in which one individual teaches or instruct another individual. Teaching is considered as the act of imparting instructions to the learners in the classroom situation. It is watching systematically.
Dewey considers it as a manipulation of the situation, where the learner will acquire skills and insight with his own initiation.
Teaching definition:-
(1) H C Morrison:- Teaching is an intimate contact between the more mature personality and a less mature one.
(b) Democratic
(c) Liassez faire.
(a) Authoritarian:- According to this viewpoint-
Teaching is an activity of memory level only
This teaching does not develop thoughts and attitude in the students.
Is known as thoughtless teaching
Teaching is done at understanding level.
Memory level teaching is the prerequisite (concept) is first memorized and then understand Such teaching is known as thoughtful teaching.
According to this point of view, teaching is an interactive process, primarily involving classroom talks which takes place between teachers and student.
Here students can ask questions and criticize the teachers.
Here students can ask the questions and self-disciplined is insisted.
(c) Laissez Faire Attitude:-
It is known as reflective level teaching.
It is more difficult then memory level and understanding level of teaching.
Memory level and understanding level teaching are must for the reflective level of teaching.
It is highly thoughtful activity.
In this level both students and teachers are participants.
This level produces insights.
NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF TEACHING:-
WHAT IS LEARNING?
The term learning originated from the Old English word “leornian” which is translated as “to get knowledge” or “to think about”. Indeed, people learn by getting new knowledge and when they gain insights from thinking about something.
Specifically, learning is the acquisition of new information or the modification of existing knowledge, preferences, expertise, and other aspects of behavior. The following are the criteria of learning:
More or less permanent change
Genuine learning is characterized by an individuals’ change in behavior which lasts for a fairly long time. For instance, students who get zero in a quiz or test are often perceived to have not learnt anything from the lessons as the new knowledge was not retained after the teaching process.
Positive or negative
Ideally, an individual should change positively after being taught. However, it is a well-known fact that negative behaviors are commonly learned.
Brought about by experience
It should also be noted that learning is not due to passive causes such as illness, maturation, and injury.
Relationship between Teaching and Learning
- Both are goal directed. A teacher teaches but learns also.
- Teaching can be observed but learning can not be
- Both are forma as well as informal (excursion, Competition, Field activity)
- Good teaching results in good learning.
- Good teaching requires good communication skills and good learning requires good listening skills
- Both require skills, creativity, intelligence and operate on definite principles.
- Teacher is not a giver of knowledge only information provider.
- Teaching is intentional (preplanned topic, content) and learning is unconscious.
- Every teaching must ensure some learning
- Learning is personal and teaching is social
- Learning without teaching possible
- Learning doesn't implies teaching but teaching does imply learning
SOCIO-CULTURAL DIVERSITY AMONG LEARNERS
Socio-cultural diversity is the reality of an Indian classroom.
Socio-cultural diversity in this context includes race, class, ability, different learning conditions and styles, ethnicity, age, gender, sexual orientation, religion, nationality and other dimensions that make up the identity of the individual student and impact his or her learning experience. (UNESCO, 2011)
According to socio-cultural theorists, learners cannot be considered in isolation from their social and cultural contexts. A great diversity is found in learner’s social conditions and cultural background and their learning occurs accordingly.
FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNERS:
Family Structure
Diversity in family structure also affects the learner’s learning. For example, the learners who belong to nuclear families may have lower learning outcomes. It is assumed that in nuclear families, increased responsibilities on learners such as childcare roles, domestic duties impede in the time available for school work and their parents also have less time to spend with their children and to supervise their school work. As a result, they may show low learning performances. Whereas in a joint family, parents spend more time with their children as they have helping hands in their family. So the learners who belong to joint family may show higher learning performances.
Type of School
Apart from the family structure, type of school also influences the learner’s learning outcome. A private school has a number of learners from high class families whereas a government school has a number of learners from middle and low class families. Private schools select learners with high academic abilities and
they also have financial support. The learning environment in a private school is also quite different from a government school. Due to greater financial support in a private school, the classrooms and laboratory are well-furnished and well equipped with new technologies, while in government schools the classrooms are not well equipped. We read news regarding the real picture of our government schools where there are no classrooms in most of the schools and learners learn in the open. As a result of lack of appropriate learning environment, learning
outcome of learners in government schools is sometimes lower than the private schools.
3. Geographical Location
Geographical location also affects the learning outcome. Due to lack of appropriate learning facilities in the rural and remote areas such as cost, transport facilities, low family income, new technologies such as computer, mobile, internet etc., the learners from these areas remain disadvantaged. We may say that learners who belong to non-metropolitan areas may have lower learning outcome in comparison to the learners from metropolitan areas.
4 Socio-economic Status
The socio-economic status of family also plays a crucial role in the learning of a learner. A learner who belongs to a family of lower socioeconomic status, does not get intellectual stimulus from his family and as a result, he remains lazy and inactive in the classroom. On the other side, the learner who belongs to a family
of medium socioeconomic status, gets full motivation from his family, has high level of aspirations and as a result he remains active in classroom. We may say that his/her learning outcome is may be higher than the learner who belongs to lower socio-economic status.
5. Cultural Background
Learner’s cultural background has an impact on learning. Learners from different cultural backgrounds learn in a different manner. Cultural backgrounds impact the way the learner
participates in various activities of school. A learner from collectivist cultural background prefers to learn in cooperation with others, while a learner from individualist cultural background prefers to learn independently. The important aspect for the teacher is that s/he should be aware about the differences between the school environment and cultural background of a learner. The teacher must work to understand the learner’s cultural background and in this task the learner herself/himself could be a valuable source of information to the teacher. As a
teacher, we may encourage the learners to talk about his/her family and cultural background etc., so that we can organise the learning environment accordingly.
6 Language
The linguistic diversity also affects a learner’s learning outcomes. In our classrooms we have diverse learners including many non-Hindi or non-English speaking learners. Learners who belong to those families whose language do not match with the medium of
instruction of the school find themselves disadvantaged. Linguistically diverse learners sometimes show lower learning outcome and higher dropout rates. To ensure educational equity, we may appoint qualified teachers to reach the linguistically diverse learners. As a teacher, we should start language programmes for the learners with specific languages and during parent teacher meetings, we should try to present all the information in the parent’s native language.
ACTIVE LEARNING:
Active learning “is anything that involves students in doing things and thinking about the things they are doing”.
In active learning, learners get opportunities of reading, writing, discussion, problem solving, analysis, synthesis, evaluation, creativity etc. In active learning environment, learners give more importance to construction
of the knowledge by self, in place of accepting the knowledge given by teachers.
Thus, learners are not only the transporter of knowledge.
Strategies for Promoting Active Learning
Visual-Based Instruction: Under this method, instructions are planned, Assisted based on stagnant projection (slide, overhead transparencies) film, multimedia presentation, TV, Video, etc. to create an active learning environment. In our classroom such visual based instructions enhance interest in learning and make them more active during the class.
Creative Writing: Creating supportive environment for critical and creative writing comes under it. Writing related works, like writing comments on sides of research journals, writing thoughts on any specific title, writing summary of a lecture, writing summary on any given study material, essay writing and other creative like writing for all magazines, newspapers etc. can help in developing
active learning environment.
Writing and creative writing play a very effective role in developing deep understanding on any subject.
Problem Solving: We often try providing solutions to problem of learners in our classroom; due to this, learners do not get opportunities for searching new and different solution of problems. Consequently, they do not get enough opportunities for developing high order thinking ability. So, we should train
learners to use problem solving method in order to find out the solutions of various problems, so that they actively find out the way to solve their problem on their own.
Computer–Based Instruction: In this individualized instructions are given through computer. Learners learn according to their pace. Present day initiatives like MOODLE (Modular Object Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment) and
MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses) are mainly computer based instructions.
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Co-operative Learning: learners have different kinds of
abilities and characteristics. If they develop understanding on any subject and find out solution of any problem together with the help of each other, they achieve the best result. They get opportunities to develop social skill as well like decision making ability and communication etc.
Drama: Drama is also a very interesting method, in which learners are active and involved. If drama is used as a medium of instruction to develop understanding of the subject, then surely learners will participate actively in the learning process.
Role Playing, Simulations and Games:
These are also very interesting methods, where learners get involved with interest. These methods will be very beneficial
in instruction subjects like History, Mathematics, Science; Languages can integrate these methods very easily.
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
Observational learning means “learning by observation or imitation”.
Observational learning is one of the outcomes of Bhandura’s social cognitive theory of learning. Bhandura was of the view that if a person observe someone doing some act in a particular situation, s/he observe the actions and tries to imitate it when fall in similar situation.
Elements of Observational Learning
Observational Learning has four major processes or elements
Attention: Bhandura was of the view that attention is the first step of observational learning. To learn anything, learner has to pay attention on what is being said or acted. In this step, a teacher’s role is also very important. As a teacher, one has to present the things in such a way that one can attract learners to pay attention.
Clear, precise, simple and interesting presentation by teachers helps in observational learning. Teacher’s behavior towards learners is also an important factor here as a warm and welcoming gesture attracts learners more as compared
to cold or rude one.
Retention: to imitate any behavior, it is important that learners should retain it as much as possible. If a teacher is explaining to learners to handle any apparatus in a chemistry laboratory, the steps demonstrated by the teacher should be clear,step wise and easily visible to learner so that they can retain it as such in their
memory. Verbal instruction along with demonstration helps in better retention.
Repetition and practice also helps in retention.
Production: Attention and retention is not enough to reproduce or imitate any behavior. Many times, learners observe a behavior but they are not able to imitate it as such due to lack of practice or coaching. Bhandura was of the view that teachers should provide ample opportunities to learner to practice, or to coach them in improving their performance at desired level.
Motivation: A learner may learn something by imitation but it is not necessary that s/he practice it or show it. If there is motivation or reinforcement for a particular act/skill, learner will demonstrate it. Role of motivation and rewards is highly appreciated by Bhandura in learning. Desired skill/behavior needs to be reinforced and learner should be encouraged in right direction.
SIGNIFICANCE OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
• As a teacher one can use observational learning in the subjects like mathematics, science, geography, etc. very effectively as in these subjects many concepts are introduced with the help of observation.
• Observational learning is helpful in introduction of new behavior.
• Selection of model (i.e. the person or instrument) to represent the skill or behavior is very important. Appropriateness of model is the key of success in observational learning.
• Teachers himself/herself could be a good model. Many behavior/skills a learner learn through imitating his/her teachers.
SITUATED LEARNING
Situated learning is the method in which learning takes place in the circumstances for which learning is required. Hence, real or virtual situations are created to provide opportunity. Jean Lave and Etiene Wenger (1991) propounded this concept as a model of learning for ‘Community of Practice’. Although, situated
learning has been used earlier for various arts (war skills, cooking, sculpture, architecture, music, etc.) and in service sector like medical teaching, administrations etc. but, Jean Lave and Etiene Wenger (1992) have suggested it as systematic approach in modern context.
COMPONENTS OF SITUATED LEARNING
Major components of situated learning are:
1) Content: Facts to be learnt and process of a task come under it. Reflection and higher order thinking ability about the subject, knowledge which is used in solving various problems are emphasized more than retention or memory
of subject knowledge. Focus is on applications of content.
2) Context: Context implies the situation of learning, value of situation and signals from environments. We should observe learning in the context including social, physical and psychological environment, where it takes place and also the place and the situation.
3) Community: Community implies the group where learner begins to learn and create knowledge. This community plays a very important role for learning.
4) Participation: Group participation is a very important element for situated learning as learners work together for solving the problem. Interaction takes place among thoughts, views and suggested method of problem solving by all in specific social fabric through participation. Thinking lecture and process of consensus continues when higher order thinking abilities develop.
CONCEPTIONS ABOUT SITUATED LEARNING
1) Knowledge is not a thing and memory is not a place, rather it is created socially.
2) So, knowledge reflects through behavior and work of individual or group of individuals. Knowledge develops naturally through participation of individuals and adaptation with new situation.
3) Learning, knowing and cognition develop socially through tasks performed by person or other interaction with others. There it takes shape and get expressed.
4) Meanings are developed through affiliation with specific context and objectives.
5) Cultural model does not exist within person rather is alive in social practices. The way people are associated, the instruments they use and the specific cultural context in which they work, cultural model develops in that. Learning takes place within this cultural model.
6) “As situation shapes human’s cognition and thinking similarly a person’s actions create the situation” (Wilson & Myers, 2000).
Situated learning is very important for the betterment of our school education. One can make a visit with your learners to the post office, police station, railway station, airport, power grid, bank, judiciary, etc. where they get opportunities in real situations and learning becomes effective and interesting.
4. COLLABORATIVE LEARNING
Concept of Collaborative Learning
Collaborative Learning is a situation in which two or more persons try to learn together. They use the skills and resources of each other during this period, share the knowledge and criticize others’ views and guide each other to learn thus, knowledge, understanding, solving of a problem or cumulative effort by a group people for creating something new, is called Collaborative learning. This collaborative learning is possible in face to face situations or with the help of modern techniques of information technology like, online forum, chat room, video conferencing, etc. Collaborative writing, group project, cumulative problem
solving, debate, discussion, study group, etc. come under Collaborative learning.
Idea of Collaborative learning has developed on the basis of the concept of ‘Zone of Proximal Development –ZPD propounded by Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934).
Vygotsky has proposed theory about learning possibilities among learners.
According to him, learner does some work without help and some with help while learning, but s/he does not do some besides help and if s/he is provided guidance then s/he is able to do this. Hence, there are three categories: -
First, work done without any help;
Second, work may possible if guidance and counseling provided;
Third, work is not possible ever after help.
If learner is able to do something after providing help and guidance, it falls under ‘Zone Proximal Development’ (ZPD). It builds the basis for collaborative learning.
It can be said on the basis of it that if collaborative learning environment is created, then works can be performed under ZPD and knowledge, skills and aptitude acquisition can be ensured.
STRATEGIES FOR COLLABORATIVE LEARNING
Collaborative Learning can be practiced in classroom and at workplace in many ways. Some are being given as following:-
Think-Pair–Share: Teacher introduces a problem related to higher order thinking ability like analysis, synthesis, evaluation and construction etc. before learners.
All learners are provided five minutes so that they can respond properly to the solution of problem. After it, they are given time for sharing their thinking with peers in small groups. Also, they have to listen to others and discuss with other classmates. At least, they have to have a consensus on appropriate method for
solution of problem. At the end of the class, all groups share related processes and outcomes of discussion during follow-up discussion.
Catch Up: Teacher stops suddenly during the lecture and ask learners to compare their notes with other classmates and to ask questions on doubtful points to clarify. Teacher should start question- answers session after sometime and motivate the learners from another group to answer.
Fishbowl debate: One can make three groups of learners. Those who are sitting on the right side may be in support and the left side group may be in opposition or vice-versa. The group which is sitting in the middle row is asked to note down the thoughts of both groups and determine who has put facts, strong reasons
effectively etc. In the end they are asked to present the report before the class.
Case Study: Teacher should prepare four to five case study proposals of same difficulty level. These may be assigned to learners dividing them in groups. Groups should be provided time for analysis, teacher may ask for progress report during this period. After completion of work, it should be presented before class.
Team Based Learning:
L.K. Michaelser (2000) suggested this method.
Learners are divided in groups by teacher and assigned some specific work i.e. a book for study, a laboratory work or to find out solution of some specific problems. Learners are asked to appear in a group examination after completion of the work. Quiz is
very popular for it. They have to answer on the basis of consensus in the group and also name the member who has suggested the answer. At last, teacher needs to explain the difficulties and resolve the misconceptions among learners. After
many such settings, learners may be assigned some challenging problems also to find out the solution.
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Significance of Collaborative Learning
This method is being used at many places other than the classroom. Collaborative learning is very effective in imparting training of skills. Many institutions have emphasized on collaborative learning as a method of training for the development
of technical and managerial skills at work place. Providing opportunities to the group of trainees for learning among experienced persons and in real situation is more effective as compared to other methods. After such type of learning, learners
may be deployed in real situations and higher order thinking abilities, like analysis, synthesis, evaluation, construction, etc. can be developed among learners in such an environment and also problem solving ability develops due to their place and encounters with real situation. There are some problems at workplace which learners may face like difference of cultural background, lack of awareness about cultural norms, generation gap and age gap, etc. But there, problems are improved during training and counseling session and new knowledge and skills can be developed through concerted effort.
• New dimensions of collaborative learning have emerged in this new age of modern information and communication technology. People living in remote areas can work together through technology at virtual platforms and solve the problems. Very effective and attractive learning environment can be
created for classroom and workplace through it.
Some ways are as follows:
– Collaborative Networked Learning (CLN): Creating a learning
environment with the help of electronic equipments.
– Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL): Creating an environment with the help of Computer and Internet.
– Wikipedia Supported Collaborative Learning (WSCL): Wikipedia is a good example of collaborative learning, where many people are involved together in knowledge creation and problem solving.
– Collaborative Learning in Virtual World:
Skype, 3D model, Mind mapping tools etc.
LEARNING OUT OF SCHOOLS
Schools are working as an institutional center in modern society for the learning of various knowledge, skills and attitude. But the people attached with educational process and various social activities believe that opportunity for the preparation of life and society, life skills education is decreasing continuously. Life of a
learner is like a prisoner within the boundaries of school. Burden of subject knowledge is diverting them from practical life, i.e.: social issues, essential life skills, ambition for the preparation of better civil society and knowledge society, reflection on future challenges of life, as they have to do with social concerns,
etc. School and Institutions are like islands in the society. It is not good to be dependent on schools or institutions in this situation and it is necessary to look out of the school for construction of knowledge. So that it could be related with the needs of society and nature. Behavior can be modified along with people of society. Education was never bounded with in schools or gurukuls
In 1987, Lauren B. Resmick proposed this concept of ‘Learning in school and out’ in his presidential address in AERA. Resmick stated that the ‘school intelligence’ that is being developed by learning in our school has minimal relation with required intelligence and wisdom for the real world. So, it is difficult to
access wisdom on the basis of school knowledge and achievement. An efficient school learner is not efficient in essential skill of real situations as per our norms.
Providing opportunities for knowledge outside of school are essential to fill the gap. Evaluation of learners in most of the schools is individualistic and learning is also individualistic. But when we work in society then success or failure is observed as group. So, it seems essential to acquire learning experience in the
social situations, where one has to work in real.
There are various learning situations out of school.
Resmick accepted that there is a difference between learning inside the school and outside of school in following ways:
1) Learning takes place individually in school but develops as shared cognition outside the school.
2) Schools motivate to work with pure consciousness without help of equipment (book, note, calculator and other tools) followed by examination. (For example, you must have felt that minimum tools are allowed to use during examination) but in real situations, you have to accomplish any task with the help of many such tools and help of others.
3) Due to lack of real situations in school, maximum learning happen in form of symbols, outside of school, whereas opportunities are available more for learning and discussion in specific context.
4) Generalized learning takes place in schools, whereas skills related to a specific situation develop outside of it.
Dimensions of Learning Out of the School
Following theories have been proposed about learning out of school in the book ‘Learning in and out of school’ by James A. Bank, et. al. (1997) which are quite pertinent to our discussion:
1) Learning takes place in socio-economical and historical contexts according to local culture, customs and perspective.
2) Learning does not take place in school only, but it continues in many contexts, activities and social behaviors,
3) There is a need to provide help to every child for personal intellectual development in every institution.
4) Learning will be more effective, when learners are motivated to use their language of home and community, culture and society. This extends their language and understanding.
Thus, three dimensions are as follows:
1) Life –long Learning: Curiosity of learning new knowledge and skills useful for life through situation and events and communication and interactions in relation to it needed lifelong. It begins at childhood and continues till death.
2) Life – wide Learning: Developing skills to adjust and accommodate according to time, place and situation comes under it. Living with equivalence in human relationship despite various favorable as well as bitter experiences is also a part of it. It is basically the preparation of life and future.
3) Life–deep Learning: Religion, values, morality, ethics-these control our faith, behavior and belongingness and help in decision making for self and others are part of it.
Opportunity should be provided to learners out of school, like community organization and civil society for experiencing various aspects of life as well.
School may also create such an environment for example:
Community based homework and home work club for assistance.
Study club: It should not be bound by curriculum rather extends it.
Appointment of experienced counselor and mentor for learners outside of school with the help of guardian.
Residential activities: Weekend residential meet for extensive learning, residential study week, residential summer workshop and excursion (museum, zoo, library, historical place, natural diversities).
Social meeting for various communities and groups.