AGENCIES OF SOCIALIZATION
Introduction
Socialization refers to
the continuous interaction of an individual with society, enabling the
transformation of a living organism into a social being. This process begins at
birth and continues throughout life ("womb to tomb"). Individuals are
shaped by various agencies such as family, peers, schools, media, etc.
Definition and Scope of
Socialization: Socialization is the process through
which individuals interact with society and assimilate its norms, values, and
customs, transforming into social beings. It begins at birth and continues
throughout life, adapting as people encounter different stages and challenges.
Modern advancements in
science and technology, including social media, have expanded the scope of
socialization.
Importance of Social
Interaction: Social interaction is vital for survival
and growth. Individuals cannot live in isolation; they naturally seek
connections with family, peers, and community members.
Modern Influences:
In addition to traditional agents like family and schools, modern agents such
as electronic media and social networking have profoundly impacted how
socialization occurs. These tools bridge geographical gaps, fostering global
connectedness.
Purpose of the Unit:
The unit aims to classify and explain various socialization agencies and their
impact at micro, meso, and macro levels, highlighting their contributions to
personality development and societal integration.
Objectives:
By the end of this unit,
one should be able to:
·
Identify various agencies of
socialization.
·
Classify these agencies at micro, meso,
and macro levels.
·
Understand the role of family, school,
media, and peers in shaping personality.
·
Appreciate the teacher's role in
school-based socialization.
·
Discuss the influence of gender and social
class on socialization.
Socialization: The Basic
Concept
Definition:
Socialization is a lifelong process that enables individuals to adopt cultural
values, behaviours, and norms.
Dual Nature:
Socialization involves change (growth and development) while retaining core
personality traits.
Importance of Interaction:
Lack of social interaction can lead to developmental issues, as seen in cases
like Genie, a girl deprived of human interaction.
Cultural Variability:
Socialization practices differ across societies, cultures, and life stages
(infancy, adolescence, adulthood, old age).
Phases of Socialization:
Primary Socialization:
Occurs in early childhood, mainly within the family. It lays the foundation for
learning language and basic behaviours.
Secondary Socialization:
Takes place in institutional settings like schools, where children learn to
interact in larger groups.
Adult Socialization:
Involves adapting to roles such as spouse or employee.
Identify Socialization
Agencies: Recognize formal and informal agents like family,
school, peers, religion, and media.
Classify Agencies by
Levels: Understand the distinctions between micro (family,
peers), meso (schools, religion, social class), and macro (media, global
community) levels.
Understand Key Roles:
Family:
As the first agent of socialization.
School and Teachers:
Imparting discipline, academic knowledge, and social norms.
Media:
Influencing thought processes and behaviours at a broader scale.
Discuss Gender
Socialization: Analyze how different agents perpetuate
or challenge gender roles.
Appreciate Teacher
Contributions: Recognize teachers' role in modelling
behaviour, conflict resolution, and fostering positive learning environments.
Core Idea:
Socialization helps individuals learn the values, norms, and behaviours of
their society, enabling them to integrate into social groups. It involves both
retaining one’s personality and adapting to societal expectations.
Significance of
Interaction: Isolation or lack of interaction can
lead to severe developmental issues. For instance, the tragic case of Genie, a
girl deprived of human interaction, demonstrated that isolation hinders
language development, emotional growth, and social skills.
Socialization and Culture:
Socialization practices vary by society, culture, and life stage. A child in
one society may learn values vastly different from those in another, reflecting
the diversity of cultural norms.
Agencies
of Socialization
Ø
Micro-Level Socialization
·
Family:
The family is the first and most influential agent of socialization. Provides
the foundation for basic values, habits, and cultural learning. Influences
attitudes, behaviours, and self-concept based on family structure, parenting
style, and socio-economic background. Gender roles are often reinforced within
the family, particularly in patriarchal systems.
·
Peer Group:
Becomes significant in adolescence, providing a sense of belonging and teaching
skills like leadership, negotiation, and cooperation. Peer influence can
sometimes challenge parental authority and reinforce gender roles.
·
Neighbourhood:
Local interactions expose children to diverse values, customs, and behaviours.
A supportive and cooperative neighbourhood promotes positive socialization,
while a violent one may lead to antisocial tendencies.
Ø
Meso-Level Socialization
·
School: Acts as a "miniature society" where
children from different backgrounds learn societal norms. Provides formal
learning (curriculum) and informal lessons (hidden curriculum), reinforcing
values like discipline, teamwork, and gender roles. Teachers play a vital role
in modelling behaviour, instilling values, and resolving conflicts.
·
Religion: Shapes
moral values, community identity, and spiritual perspectives. Religious
practices like festivals and rituals promote solidarity but can also lead to
social division if misused.
·
Social Class: Social
class influences child-rearing practices, educational goals, and future
aspirations. Middle-class families emphasize academic success and long-term
goals, while working-class families focus on conformity and authority.
Ø
Macro-Level Socialization
·
Global Community: Advances
in technology and communication have created a "global village,"
connecting individuals worldwide. Access to diverse cultural opportunities
facilitates global socialization.
·
Mass Media: Includes
print (newspapers, books) and electronic media (TV, radio, internet). Positively
spreads knowledge but can negatively influence children through violence and
stereotypes.
·
Social Networking: Platforms
like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram enable global interaction and cultural
exchange. Virtual communities transcend physical boundaries, promoting
inclusivity but also raising concerns like cyberbullying and harmful content.
Summary
Socialization is a
lifelong process involving micro, meso, and macro-level agents.
Micro-level:
Family, peer group, and neighbourhood are critical in early development.
Meso-level:
Schools, religion, and social class shape values and behaviours.
Macro-level:
Globalization, media, and social networking broaden the scope of socialization.
Each agency contributes uniquely to moulding an individual's personality and
integrating them into society. This structured breakdown should help in
understanding and revising the content effectively. Let me know if you want any
specific section or point elaborated further!
Life Stages of
Socialization:
Primary Socialization: Occurs in infancy and childhood. Primarily
facilitated by family, it instills language, habits, and basic behaviours.
Secondary Socialization:
Happens in later childhood and adolescence, primarily through schools and peer
groups. Focuses on formal education, societal rules, and interaction in larger
social contexts.
Adult Socialization:
Occurs when individuals take on new roles (e.g., employee, spouse) and adapt to
responsibilities. Includes learning norms for workplace behaviour, marital
relationships, and community participation.
Micro-Level
Socialization
This level focuses on
small, intimate groups and direct, face-to-face interactions.
v Family:
·
Primary Influence:
Family is the first agent of socialization, shaping core values, beliefs, and behaviours.
·
Cultural Transmission:
Families pass down language, customs, and traditions, influencing a child’s
identity and worldview.
·
Emotional Support:
Families provide the affection and care necessary for emotional development.
·
Gender Roles:
Gender socialization often begins in the family, with boys and girls being
assigned different tasks and roles (e.g., girls helping in the kitchen, boys
fixing tools).
v Parenting
Styles:
·
Warm and nurturing parents foster positive
development.
·
Conflict-laden families may lead to
mistrust or antisocial behaviours in children.
·
Cultural Variations:
·
In patriarchal societies like India, male
dominance shapes family dynamics.
·
In Japan, mothers play a pivotal role in
socialization.
v Peer
Group:
·
Definition:
Peers include friends, classmates, and playmates who share similar
characteristics like age or interests.
·
Role in Adolescence:
Peers help adolescents develop independence from parents. Teach social skills
like negotiation, cooperation, and leadership.
·
Gender Socialization:
Boys and girls often engage in stereotypical activities (e.g., boys forming
larger groups, girls opting for small, less physical activities). Peer groups
reinforce societal norms regarding gender.
v Neighbourhood:
·
Definition:
A local social unit where frequent interactions occur.
·
Positive Impact:
Warm and cooperative neighborhoods instill values like discipline and respect
for diversity.
·
Negative Impact:
Aggressive or unsafe environments can lead to antisocial tendencies in
children.
Meso-Level
Socialization
This level includes
intermediate-sized social units, such as schools and religious institutions.
v School:
·
Formal Education:
Schools teach academic knowledge and societal norms.
·
Hidden Curriculum:
Beyond academics, schools impart values like discipline, punctuality, and
teamwork.
·
Gender Socialization:
Schools reinforce gender roles through curricula and classroom interactions.
·
Teacher’s Role:
Act as agents of change by modelling ideal behaviour, resolving conflicts, and
encouraging positive attitudes. Provide emotional support, especially during
adolescence.
v Religion:
·
Definition:
A system of beliefs and practices related to sacred elements of life.
·
Role in Socialization:
Teaches moral values like honesty, solidarity, and compassion. Rituals and
ceremonies foster a sense of community.
·
Challenges:
Narrow interpretations of religion may lead to social divisions.
v Social
Class:
·
Definition: A stratification based on
wealth, education, and occupation.
·
Influence on Socialization: Working-class
families emphasize conformity and respect for authority. Middle-class families
focus on academic success and future-oriented goals.
Macro-Level
Socialization
This level includes
global forces and large-scale institutions.
v Global
Community:
·
Definition:
The interconnected world enabled by technology and communication.
·
Impact:
Breaks down geographical barriers, fostering cultural exchange and
collaboration.
v Mass
Media:
·
Definition:
Channels like TV, newspapers, and the internet that reach large audiences.
·
Influence: Shapes societal perceptions and
norms.Potential negative effects include promoting violence or reinforcing
stereotypes.
v Social
Networking:
·
Definition:
Online platforms like Facebook and Instagram that enable global interactions.
·
Benefits: Promotes
inclusivity and cultural exchange. Facilitates virtual communities where
traditional barriers like gender and race are irrelevant.
·
Challenges: Overexposure
to harmful content can negatively affect values and behaviour.
Multiple
Choice Questions
1. Socialization
is described as:
a) A
process that ends in adolescence.
b) An
interaction limited to family members only.
c) A
continuous process from birth to death.
d) A
process irrelevant to societal norms.
Answer: c
2. What
technological advancement is mentioned as influencing socialization in modern
times?
a) Automobiles
b) Social
media and networking
c) Agricultural
tools
d) Manual
typewriters
Answer: b
3. Which
of the following is NOT an objective of this unit?
a) To
classify socialization agencies at different levels
b) To
learn how to cook traditional dishes
c) To
understand the role of schools in socialization
d) To
discuss the impact of media on socialization
Answer: b
4. What
is the primary role of socialization according to the text?
a) To
isolate individuals from society.
b) To
integrate individuals into the norms and values of their culture.
c) To
enforce strict behavioural patterns.
d) To
replace individual identity with societal identity.
Answer: b
5. The
tragic case of Genie illustrates:
a) The
effect of excessive media exposure.
b) The
role of school in shaping behaviour.
c) The
importance of social interaction in human development.
d) The
negative impact of technology.
Answer: c
6. Which
agency is considered the "cradle of social virtues"?
a) School
b) Family
c) Peer
group
d) Media
Answer: b
7. Adolescents
often move away from parental control because:
a) They
dislike their parents.
b) They
prioritize friendships and peer group interactions.
c) Schools
discourage parental involvement.
d) Parents
force them to do household chores.
Answer: b
8. Which
institution is described as a "miniature society"?
a) Family
b) School
c) Religion
d) Workplace
Answer: b
9. Hidden
curriculum in schools refers to:
a) Lessons
taught outside formal academics.
b) Secret
extracurricular activities.
c) Covert
disciplinary actions.
d) Gender-exclusive
educational content.
Answer: a
10. What
is a potential negative influence of mass media mentioned in the text?
a) Increased
aggression in children.
b) Encouragement
of teamwork.
c) Promotion
of traditional values.
d) Advancement
in academic performance.
Answer: a
11. Social
networking sites are described as tools for:
a) Promoting
family isolation.
b) Sharing
common interests and building connections.
c) Avoiding
social interaction.
d) Imposing
societal norms strictly.
Answer: b
12. What
is habitus according to Bourdieu?
a) A
set of dispositions inherited from the family
b) A
child's natural curiosity
c) An
innate ability to interact with society
d) A
formal education curriculum
Answer: a
13. What
can lead to antisocial behaviour in children, as per the text?
a) Overparenting
b) Mistrust
and conflicts in the family
c) Strict
school environments
d) Exposure
to media
Answer: b
14. The
patriarchal system in India primarily:
a) Encourages
gender equality in families.
b) Promotes
the dominance of males in households.
c) Eliminates
the concept of gender roles.
d) Places
women in leadership roles within the family.
Answer: b
15. Adolescents’
rebellion is often attributed to:
a) Lack
of education
b) Poor
parenting
c) Cultural
inconsistencies
d) Excessive
independence
Answer: c
16. Erikson's
theory captures the adolescent stage as a time of:
a) Identity
crisis
b) Absolute
parental dependence
c) Rebellion
against education
d) Isolation
from peers
Answer: a
17. Gender
roles in families are often reinforced through:
a) Equal
sharing of chores
b) Observation
of parental behaviour
c) School-based
activities
d) Peer
group influence only
Answer: b
18. Which
of the following is an example of meso-level socialization?
a) Peer
group interaction
b) Religious
practices
c) Mass
media exposure
d) Family
discussions
Answer: b
19. What
type of values can schools instill in students?
a) Individualism
and isolation
b) Punctuality,
discipline, and teamwork
c) Rebellion
against societal norms
d) Cultural
rigidity and uniformity
Answer: b
20. The
teacher's role in socialization is:
a) Limited
to knowledge transmission
b) Expansive,
influencing behaviour and values
c) Focused
only on enforcing rules
d) Irrelevant
in modern education systems
Answer: b
21. In
the school setting, the term "hidden curriculum" refers to:
a) Gender
bias in textbooks
b) Unspoken
lessons learned through interactions
c) Informal
storytelling sessions
d) Secretive
school policies
Answer: b
22. Religion
is considered a socialization agent because it:
a) Divides
people based on beliefs
b) Shapes
moral and ethical values
c) Opposes
societal norms
d) Eliminates
cultural differences
Answer: b
23. Social
class influences socialization primarily through:
a) Family
size
b) Education,
wealth, and occupation
c) Gender
roles
d) Peer
group dynamics
Answer: b
24. The
working-class parenting style often emphasizes:
a) Strict
adherence to authority
b) Encouragement
of innovation
c) Academic
achievements
d) Social
autonomy
Answer: a
25. The
term "global village" refers to:
a) A
return to traditional living
b) The
interconnectedness of the world due to technology
c) Isolation
of communities from each other
d) A
global shift to rural lifestyles
Answer: b
26. An
example of mass media includes:
a) Online
communities
b) Television
c) School
curriculums
d) Neighborhood
interactions
Answer: b
27. Excessive
exposure to violent television content may lead to:
a) Improved
academic performance
b) Increased
aggression in children
c) Greater
cultural awareness
d) Enhanced
creativity
Answer: b
28. Social
networking sites allow for:
a) Personal
isolation
b) Gender-based
segregation
c) Building
social contacts and sharing interests
d) Reducing
global interaction
Answer: c
29. Virtual
communities are characterized by:
a) Face-to-face
interactions
b) Shared
cyberspace connections
c) Traditional
communication methods
d) Limited
social influence
Answer: b
30. A
significant advantage of social networking is:
a) Eliminating
traditional relationships
b) Building
individual networks with and without face-to-face interactions
c) Replacing
cultural norms with virtual ones
d) Isolating
young users from their families
Answer: b
31. A
critical warning about electronic media is its role in:
a) Promoting
gender equality
b) Spreading
violence and misinformation
c) Encouraging
academic excellence
d) Enhancing
traditional family values
Answer: b
32. What
is the primary focus of socialization?
a) Individual
achievement
b) Integration
into society's cultural norms
c) Preservation
of family traditions only
d) Rebellion
against societal expectations
Answer: b
33. Gender
socialization in peer groups often reinforces:
a) Equality
in roles
b) Gender
stereotypes
c) Collaboration
between boys and girls
d) Neutral
behaviours among children
Answer: b
34. Which
agency is described as both active and passive in socialization?
a) Peer
group
b) School
c) Media
d) Family
Answer: b
35. Adolescents
consult their peer groups on issues like:
a) Major
life decisions
b) Academic
advice
c) Curiosity
about sexuality
d) Financial
management
Answer: c
36. Peer
groups become significant during:
a) Infancy
b) Early
childhood
c) Adolescence
d) Adulthood
Answer: c
37. Gender
stereotypes in peer groups are evident when:
a) Boys
and girls freely play together.
b) Children
choose gender-neutral toys.
c) Children
reinforce statements like "dolls are for girls."
d) All
children equally contribute to household chores.
Answer: c
38. The
behaviour of children in neighborhoods is shaped by:
a) The
socio-economic background of families.
b) Their
exposure to diverse customs and practices.
c) School
and parental discipline alone.
d) Online
activities in virtual communities.
Answer: b
39. A
warm and cooperative neighborhood can contribute to:
a) Development
of aggressive behaviour.
b) Positive
socialization.
c) Overparenting
tendencies.
d) Isolation
of individuals.
Answer: b
40. What
can negatively affect children growing up in a neighborhood?
a) Friendly
and helpful neighbors
b) Exposure
to aggressive and violent groups
c) Interactions
with family members
d) Participation
in school activities
Answer: b
41. Schools
aim to prepare children for:
a) Isolation
from larger society.
b) Life
and roles in broader social contexts.
c) Family-only
interactions.
d) Avoiding
peer group influence.
Answer: b
42. Which
of the following is an example of a formal context in schools?
a) Interaction
during lunch breaks
b) Classroom
learning activities
c) Playground
games
d) Socializing
during school events
Answer: b
43. Religion
promotes socialization by:
a) Emphasizing
individuality over community.
b) Teaching
moral principles and values.
c) Opposing
collective identity.
d) Avoiding
participation in rituals and ceremonies.
Answer: b
44. Social
class influences socialization in children by:
a) Promoting
uniform educational goals.
b) Shaping
aspirations, values, and attitudes.
c) Eliminating
socio-economic differences.
d) Encouraging
rebellion against authority.
Answer: b
45. Middle-class
parents often socialize their children to:
a) Conform
to authority.
b) Pursue
academic success and future goals.
c) Avoid
higher education.
d) Prioritize
leisure over studies.
Answer: b
46. A
working-class father may be strict due to:
a) Satisfaction
in the workplace.
b) A
lack of freedom in his job.
c) Influence
of media exposure.
d) Religious
expectations.
Answer: b
47. Mass
media serves as a vehicle for:
a) Personal
isolation.
b) Widespread
dissemination of information.
c) Limiting
societal interactions.
d) Reinforcing
only traditional values.
Answer: b
48. One
major criticism of mass media is its:
a) Excessive
focus on academic content.
b) Potential
to promote violence.
c) Lack
of reach to the masses.
d) Neutral
influence on society.
Answer: b
49. How
does social networking differ from traditional communication?
a) It
replaces interpersonal relationships.
b) It
is faster and more accessible.
c) It
limits connectivity to local regions.
d) It
discourages group interactions.
Answer: b
50. Virtual
communities offer:
a) Face-to-face
connections only.
b) Platforms
for sharing ideas without physical proximity.
c) Elimination
of traditional communication methods.
d) Isolation
from cultural exchanges.
Answer: b
51. What
aspect of social networking is considered appealing to younger generations?
a) Exclusivity
to traditional norms.
b) Irrelevance
of race and gender in virtual spaces.
c) High
cost of accessibility.
d) Restrictions
on personal expression.
Answer: b
52. Which
phase of socialization occurs in infancy and childhood?
a) Primary
socialization
b) Secondary
socialization
c) Adult
socialization
d) Tertiary
socialization
Answer: a
53. Secondary
socialization mainly takes place in:
a) Peer
groups
b) Families
c) Institutional
settings like schools
d) Virtual
communities
Answer: c
54. The
idea that socialization varies across cultures challenges the notion of:
a) Universal
socialization processes.
b) The
importance of education.
c) Family
roles in all societies.
d) Gender
equality.
Answer: a
55. A
"mini society" where children learn to adjust to societal norms is:
a) The
family
b) The
school
c) Peer
groups
d) Media
platforms
Answer: b
56. The
diversity of social classes results in:
a) Uniform
behaviour patterns among children.
b) Different
child-rearing practices and orientations.
c) The
elimination of social inequalities.
d) Homogeneous
educational experiences.
Answer: b
57. Hidden
curriculum in schools might include:
a) Official
academic content only.
b) Implicit
lessons on social roles and behaviours.
c) Structured
physical activities.
d) Gender-neutral
teaching materials.
Answer: b
58. Adolescents
are more likely to turn to their peers for guidance on:
a) Career
decisions
b) Curiosity
about sexuality
c) Academic
challenges
d) Financial
management
Answer: b
59. A
positive teacher-student relationship can:
a) Reduce
aggression and anxiety in adolescents.
b) Increase
rebellious tendencies.
c) Isolate
students from peer influence.
d) Replace
family as the primary socializing agent.
Answer: a
60. Mass
media influences children by:
a) Promoting
isolation from society.
b) Shaping
their views on social roles and norms.
c) Focusing
exclusively on academic success.
d) Eliminating
stereotypes from all content.
Answer: b
61. The
term "global community" signifies:
a) The
isolation of nations due to technology.
b) Increased
interconnectedness across the world.
c) Elimination
of cultural exchange.
d) A
decline in socialization processes.
Answer: b
62. The
rise of online communities can:
a) Replace
traditional face-to-face interactions entirely.
b) Supplement
traditional social networks.
c) Eliminate
personal communication.
d) Weaken
relationships among individuals.
Answer: b
63. Excessive
dependence on social networking sites may lead to:
a) Enhanced
social bonds only.
b) Addiction
and possible isolation.
c) Complete
elimination of stereotypes.
d) Reduced
influence of media.
Answer: b
64. New
communication technologies are beneficial because they:
a) Restrict
cultural diversity.
b) Facilitate
new forms of sociability.
c) Replace
traditional teaching methods entirely.
d) Promote
isolation in rural areas.
Answer: b
65. What
is one key challenge of social media usage among youth?
a) Strengthening
traditional community bonds.
b) The
pervasiveness of harmful content like pornography.
c) Improved
parental relationships.
d) Reinforcement
of physical community values.
Answer: b
66. Socialization
is described as:
a) A
static process ending in adulthood.
b) A
lifelong process influencing personality.
c) A
process relevant only to the modern world.
d) A
phase occurring only in families.
Answer: b
67. At
the micro level, the most significant socializing agent is:
a) Media
b) Family
c) Neighborhood
d) Peer
group
Answer: b
68. The
school contributes to socialization by:
a) Isolating
students from larger society.
b) Encouraging
individuality over cooperation.
c) Teaching
collective values and preparation for societal roles.
d) Promoting
rebellion against traditional norms.
Answer: c
69. Adolescents’
identity formation is most influenced by:
a) Family
and peers equally.
b) Schools
exclusively.
c) Virtual
communities only.
d) Isolation
from societal interactions.
Answer: a
70. Religion
influences socialization by:
a) Encouraging
skepticism of moral values.
b) Reinforcing
spiritual and ethical practices.
c) Focusing
solely on material achievements.
d) Eliminating
collective identity.
Answer: b
71. Socialization
varies due to:
a) Uniformity
in societal norms.
b) Differences
in cultures and societies.
c) Standardized
global educational systems.
d) The
absence of technological influence.
Answer: b
72. Adolescents’
rebellion against parents is often caused by:
a) A
complete rejection of social norms.
b) Conflicts
between personal and parental expectations.
c) Lack
of exposure to cultural norms.
d) Uniformity
in peer group influence.
Answer: b
73. Peer
groups teach adolescents critical skills like:
a) Isolation
techniques.
b) Leadership
and compromise.
c) Avoidance
of responsibilities.
d) Rebellion
against cooperation.
Answer: b
74. Hidden
curriculum in schools contributes to:
a) Academic
achievements exclusively.
b) The
reinforcement of social attitudes and norms.
c) Cultural
stagnation in students.
d) Eliminating
traditional teaching methods.
Answer: b
75. Mass
media's impact on children includes:
a) Teaching
them to oppose societal norms.
b) Reinforcing
behaviours through widespread content.
c) Isolating
them from socialization agents.
d) Promoting
uniformity in moral development.
Answer: b
76. The
influence of parental neglect during socialization leads to:
a) Greater
independence in children.
b) Negative
developmental outcomes and possible antisocial behaviour.
c) Improved
academic performance.
d) Stronger
peer relationships.
Answer: b
77. Which
of the following best describes adult socialization?
a) Learning
basic behaviours in childhood.
b) Adapting
to new roles like marriage and employment.
c) Forming
identity during adolescence.
d) Breaking
away from societal norms.
Answer: b
78. Peer
groups challenge parental authority by:
a) Reinforcing
identical values as parents.
b) Offering
contrasting standards and norms.
c) Eliminating
familial bonds.
d) Promoting
societal conformity.
Answer: b
79. Social
class primarily impacts child development through:
a) Family
structure only.
b) Access
to resources and opportunities.
c) Religious
affiliation.
d) Peer
group dynamics.
Answer: b
80. A
nurturing parent-child relationship contributes to:
a) Increased
rebellion against societal norms.
b) Positive
developmental outcomes in children.
c) Overdependence
on peers.
d) Aggressive
behaviour in adolescence.
Answer: b